Introduction to Quality Assurance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Introduction to Quality Assurance - Essay Example It is also responsible for coordinating and monitoring access to care, developing programs, and evaluating the quality of healthcare services in accordance with guidelines from the Department of Defense, Lead Agent, Regional 12, and Health Affairs. Specialist Referrals– The Primary Care Physician (PCP) may request a consultation from a participating specialist physician at any time.  The PCP determines the number of visits authorized.  Specialists may include – Gynecologist, Radiation Oncologists, Ophthalmologists, Pediatric Ophthalmologists, Retinologists and Allergists etc. Emergency Room Services –An emergency medical condition is defined as a condition that manifests itself by acute symptoms of sufficient severity (including severe pain) that a prudent layperson with an average knowledge of health and medicine could reasonably expect the absence of immediate medical attention to result in any of the following: Out-of-Plan Referrals– All out-of-Plan referrals require Plan prior authorization at Guam.   These requests are reviewed on an individual basis.   Determinations are made based on the patients medical needs and the availability of services to meet these needs within the provider. Tertiary Care Services– All referrals to plan tertiary care centers are reviewed on an individual basis.  The members medical needs and the availability of requested services within the non-tertiary care network are taken into consideration. Discharge Planning – Patients who require continuing care after release from the hospital are identified and the appropriate services are arranged through participating home care, medical equipment and other providers. The facility’s Utilization Management Program may need continued review on a periodic basis in order to keep it on par with the model Utilization Management Program as described by the HealthCare Advisory Council. In keeping with these lines, the program is

The French Revolution Essay Example for Free

The French Revolution Essay The French Revolution signaled the end of the monarchy as a form of government in France. From the ousting, trial and execution of Louis XVI, it appalled all of the European nations and got them thinking how to prevent it. This work aims to gain perspective and give fruitful insight on this unfortunate monarch. The revolution was fueled mainly by basic necessity: food. Bread shortages were a normal occurrence and the government appeared to be helpless to solve it. Compounding the issue was the royal treasury was almost depleted and the king and his court were living in opulence. A lot of things could have gone differently. â€Å"Louis also had a strong desire to be loved by his people and considered himself to be their benevolent father. This idea was almost certainly a factor in explaining why Louis did not simply crush the French Revolution in its early years. While the opportunity certainly presented itself, Louis simply did not have the stomach for it. †1 Benevolence might have its uses but remember the age old adage, â€Å"Spare the rod and spoil the child. † A father needs to be both stern and loving in raising children in order to differentiate right from wrong. The king in general appeared to be a simple man. â€Å"This was not for lack of education: he was the first French monarch who spoke fluent English, and nourished philosophers of the Enlightenment. He sought to divorce himself from the royally authoritarian image of Louis XIV. To do this, he tried to develop an image for himself as a simple man, an image more in keeping with that of the enlightened despots of Europe, like Frederick II of Prussia. †2 In keeping with his goal for simplicity then he should not have publicized the lavishness of his parties in Versailles. These are some facets we can consider and debate but the fact of the matter is that it could have been avoided. Although there were so many variables which could have changed the outcome, there were signals like the desire for a new constitution and assemblage or the women’s march on Versailles. Things could have been handled differently like preparing a feast for the women’s march or moving court to Paris instead of appearing to be forced after numerous demands. We need to keep an eye out for the warning signs and focus on prevention. Reference List 1. Andress, David (2006). The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France page 13. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006. ISBN 0-374-27341-3 2. Article on Louis XVI from Wikipedia (2008) retrieved 10 March 2008 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Louis_XVI

Microsoft Sharepoint Literature Review Computer Science Essay

Microsoft Sharepoint Literature Review Computer Science Essay In this chapter, the author will do research on the literature review on Microsoft SharePoint Service 3.0, Microsoft Forefront Threat Management Gateway, and Microsoft Forefront Security for Document Libraries. In this chapter the author will discuss about the overview, pros and cons for the software had listed. 1.2 Overview of Microsoft SharePoint Microsoft SharePoint is developing by Microsoft to use for manages the information and allows users to work in a web-based collaborative software. The Microsoft SharePoint actually got a lot of feature example like manage information, share files, customize and work with office applications. Now in the market normally user will use got two versions, one is Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) and another is Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS). By these two versions has introduced a lot of new features and technologies compared with the previous version Microsoft SharePoint Services 2.0, these two version not only add new features and also increase the productivity, reliability, manageability, and security for the Microsoft SharePoint product. The Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) and Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) can only running on Windows Server. For this project, the author has chosen Windows Server 2008 to become the main operating system plat form because the new Windows Server 2008 has improved capabilities of the management, security, reliability, and the performance of the web application. For the most improvement center of the Windows Server 2008 are in the system tools of the Internet Information Services (IIS) 7.0, Windows PowerShell, and the Virtualization with Windows Server Hyper-V. The Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) and the Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007 got a lot of different. Those different got some feature Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) got but the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) dont have. The details of the different between Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) and Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) will be discussed on the later chapter. 1.2.1 Comparison of Microsoft SharePoint version Microsoft SharePoint had released few versions for this product. There are some different improvements between few of them. The author had decided to do some comparison between the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) and the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007. In this comparison, the author will do all the comparison about those new things and features by these two Microsoft SharePoint versions. 1.2.1.1 Collaboration The collaboration of the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) and the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) actually is the same dont have the big different and all the feature of collaboration is help to team of member to keep in touch and easy to use to the all team members. If the team member easy to connected and easy to provide access to the people, document and all those information it will can be more informed decision to get all those job done. The main features of the collaboration actually got 12. In these 12 got included the Issue tracking, document collaboration, surveys, task coordination, email integration, calendars, people and groups lists, blogs, wikis, standard site templates, real-time presence and communication, and the last one is social networking web part. For the last main features is most important one, because in this feature is to use about your organization, communities and electronic communications in the website to connection between colleagues or team member so at the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) is dont have this feature compare to the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS). 1.2.1.2 Enterprise Portal As the author see from the name of the enterprise portal can know the feature is for enterprise use, so will got many feature Microsoft SharePoint Service 3.0 (WSS) dont have but the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) will got. The enterprise portal is talk about the designing, deploying, and the managing enterprise intranet network and the extranet network. First of all, author would like to show is both Microsoft SharePoint versions also got those features first. Both Microsoft SharePoint versions got those features got mobile device support, integration with Microsoft Access 2007/ Excel 2007/ Word 2007/ Outlook 2007, and the last one is integration with SharePoint Designer. Now the author would like to show those features Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) dont have but the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) got this kind of features. The first is my personal site, the personal site is to aggregate all those information and the enhancement about this feature is all at the privacy, social networking, and the documents roll up web part. For the feature of content syndication is using the RSS to syndicate content managed, the audience targeting feature is to use the web part pages to content the target distribution lists and groups in addition to SharePoint audiences. The feature of colleagues and memberships web parts is to li st down all the people to let those user know who belong to which groups, the feature of portal site templates is to customization, deployment all those intranet portal sites and extranet portal sites. For the site feature got two, first is site directory and another is site manager. The site directory it will automatic create a site map and present to a easy format to use it, and the site manager is to manage the SharePoint sites security access, navigation and the general look to easy to use it. For the last two features of enterprise portal are privacy and security, and user profiles and profile store. The privacy and security is using some authorization to control who can view my some information in my site. The last one is user profile and the profile store; for this feature is improvement include security control and the multi-valued properties bound to taxonomy from Office SharePoint Server 2007. 1.2.1.3 Enterprise Search Enterprise Search is can say is a powerful tools to let all the member to finish their job by using enterprise search to search all information there want. For the last time need a lot of time to find out all the information, go here go there to find out. But now just using the enterprise search already can search all those information you want cross the entire desktop search with the fast intranet searching capabilities, and most anywhere in your organization. For this tool only got two features is available for Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS), why just got two features is available for Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS)? Because the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) is not suitable for enterprise use so just will got normal function for this version. The normal function for Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) got User Interface and Search Result, as we can see the name of the feature already know the function and how to use it, so now the author would like to show the 7 different features between Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) dont have. For the 7 features got Enterprise Content Sources, Relevance, Administration and Management, Indexing Controls, Security, People Search, and the last one is Business Date Search. The feature of Enterprise Content Sources is can scan over 200 types of file a cross many enterprise content sources including all the website, SharePoint site, or the Exchange Public Folder. Anoth er feature is Security, got this feature is no longer required crawler to the administrator permissions, the security-trimmed search results only allow user to see those content they are allow to access. For the Business Data Search is using the Business Data Catalog application as a search result in a SharePoint list. The People search capabilities not just search on different group or job is also can search based on their interest or expertise. The Administration and Management feature is do a lot of improvement, those improvements got like various search, indexing scenarios and central controls for all this is a tools for easy to manage and report. For the Indexing Controls is to easy to control the Granualr and the exclusion of searched content and direct remove all the result of any site or thing. For the last is Relevance is improved about the search algorithms to extraction the best result for the enterprise content. 1.2.1.4 Enterprise Content Management For a good enterprise it will think about how to improved customer communications and increased process efficiency, so normally enterprise will use Enterprise Content Management to organization all those unstructured content includes email, document, web pages and video. For this Enterprise Content Management feature also will at Microsoft SharePoint, so those enterprises would like to organization those unstructured it can use Microsoft SharePoint to easily extend content management to every information worker in an organization. The Enterprise Content Management at Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) only got one feature is functioning. The functioning feature is Document Information Panel, this feature is work like to edit the document properties of Microsoft Office system documents an integral part of the creative experience. Now the author would like to show is about Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) got those feature but the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) dont have it. For the Microsoft SharePoint Service 3.0 (WSS) dont have those features got about 18 features. Those 18 features are included Business Document Workflow Support, Document Management Site Templates, Integration with Microsoft Information Rights Management (IRM), Document Action Bar, Retention and Auditing Policies, Records Repository, E-mail Content as Records, Legal Holds, High Fidelity Websites with Consistent Branding, Navigation Controls, Content Authoring, Content Publishing and Deployment, Site Templates, Page Layouts, Site Variations, Web content Editor, Slide Libraries, and the last one is Policies, Auditing and Compliance. For all those features actually are to do those customize document and all the content. 1.2.1.5 Business Process Forms The comparison of Business Process Forms between the Microsoft SharePoint Service 3.0 (WSS) and the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) all the feature are not available on the SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) because normally the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) is for those small companies to use it so is no need the Business Process Form tool. On the Business Process Forms got 6 features, all included Browser-Based Forms, Centralized Forms Management and Control, Design Once Development Model, Form Import Wizard, Integrated Deployment Model for No-code Forms, and the last one is Compatibility Checker. For the Business Process Forms on the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) is provide a built-in automatic approval of workflow templates, review and archiving process, and also can create, maintain and analyze workflow to simplify your enterprise. The Business Process Form can also collect all those verify from the Microsoft Office client application, if the right to use this information every day. 1.2.1.6 Business Intelligence This Business Intelligence actually is same as Business Process Form at Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 is dont have any feature to use it. But for the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) is not same because SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) got 11 features to use it. The Business Intelligence is included Integrated, Flexible Spreadsheet Publishing, Share/ Manage/ and Control Spreadsheets, Web-based Business Intelligence Using Excel Services, Data Connection Libraries, Business Data Catalog, Business Data Web Parts, Business Data Actions, Integrated Business Intelligence Dashboards, Report Center, Key Performance indicators, and the last one is Filter Web Parts. The Business Intelligence on the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) is providing an infrastructure to the decision makers to easy access all those information at anywhere and anytime. Business Intelligence not just for decision maker is also can help worker to keep update information, whether is on the desktop or over the web site. 1.2.1.7 Management The Management tool on the both version is fully available to use it, because Management tool is basic thing to management object model, administration rights, re-parenting, provision the core component of SharePoint, and the last one is the usage analytics. For the feature of the Management got 6 included Configuration Management, Administration User Interface, Delegation, Re-Parenting, Provisioning, and Usage Analytics. 1.2.1.8 Platform For the Platform of the Microsoft SharePoint can separate to 5 categories. The 5 categories got storage, security, management, deployment, site model, and the extensibility. In all this 5 categories totally got 57 features on the Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS) but for the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) got 51 features. For the 6 feature is not available on Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WS) included Notification Service, Extensibility and Programmability of Search, Excel Spreadsheet Developer Reuse and Extensibility, LDAP Pluggable Authentication Provider, Single Sign-On (SSO), and the last one is the Inteoperand Integration. The Notification Service is to can customizable the alert to the user with automatically and without subscribing in advance, the Extensibility and Programmability of Search is for comprehensive access to Microsoft Search feature. For the Excel Spreadsheet Developer Reuse and Extensibility is to do access to more secure when using web servic es. For the features of LDAP Pluggable Authentication Provide and Single Sign-On (SSO) is actually about the security and authentication when using the Microsoft SharePoint. The last feature is not available on Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) is Inteoperand Integration, the Inteoperand Integration actually is those XML Support, SOAP Support, Web Services, Open API and Object Model and WSRP. 1.3 What are document libraries? Document Libraries is based on Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 to collection all the document to share for everyone. Most likely the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0s document feature is going through to the document libraries. As part of document management planning should determine the best part for the document libraries organizations needs. For the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 got two type of document libraries included Document Library and Picture Library. The Document Library is for the general document storage, the Picture Library is for picture storage to share or manage the picture and reuse digital picture. (Plan document libraries (Windows SharePoint Services), 2006) 1.4 Pros and Cons about using Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0(WSS) In this topic the author will discuss about the advantages and disadvantages using Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS). 1.4.1 Pros about using Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0(WSS) With providing the new features by Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS), a company or business can get a lot of benefits on it. The benefits can be separate to 4 types included easy, security, efficiency, and save cost. 1.4.1.1 Easy Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) is providing the easy to use collaborative tools to create organization document, receive notification, blog, and wiki to let people connecting with the resource and information they need. This benefit also including easy managing and easy to scale. 1.4.1.2 Security The Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) bring the benefit of security is about the advanced administrative control, for this advanced administrative control will increase the security of information resources and will better control all about the site memberships, permission, and storage limit. 1.4.1.3 Efficiency The Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) is easy to use to will bring out another benefit. Another benefit is efficiency, all because easy to use so will get users up to speed quickly. 1.4.1.4 Save Cost For the SharePoint product, the Microsoft SharePoint Service is free of charge and the Microsoft SharePoint Server with five client access license already US dollar thousand something, if want more to add more is also need to charge more and if want to buy the license for external connector license for one server is about $30,000 so is very expensive if compare with the Microsoft SharePoint Services. 1.4.2 Cons about using Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) The Cons about using Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) is not suitable for using in business company because in SharePoint Services product is do not have any feature for business if compare with Microsoft SharePoint Server 2007 (MOSS). The Microsoft SharePoint Server got the entire feature about the business process forms and business Intelligence so SharePoint Server is more suitable for Business Company. (SolutionBase: Understanding the differences between SharePoint Portal Server and the Windows SharePoint Services, 2005) 1.5Microsoft Forefront Threat Management Gateway (TMG) Microsoft Forefront Threat Management Gateway (TMG) is a new firewall system to ensure all the unwanted traffic or unknown users from the internet kept it out of an organizations network. Forefront TMG not just use for external network is also can to use in internal network to provide internal users with selective access to internet resource and internet users with selective access to internal resources. Microsoft Forefront Threat Management Gateway (TMG) is following the ISA Server 2006 to build out the next level of firewall system. Forefront TMG is the next lever of ISA Server 2006 so is also will successor all the feature of the ISA Server 2006, but not just successor. The Forefront TMG also added the new feature application-layer intelligence and the anti-malware to improve the firewall usability, security, and the functionality. Forefront TMG also provided a new policy which used for SharePoint protection through integration with the Microsoft SharePoint Services and Microsoft Forefront Protection for SharePoint Services. (Forefront Threat Management: Overview, 2009) 1.5.1 How Forefront TMG works as a Firewall A firewall is designated which between trusted network and untrusted network. For example, the trusted network is a corporate network and the untrusted network is the internet so want to protect the corporate must put a firewall in between. Normally the firewall is set at the Perimeter Zone, so the firewall can filter all the traffic from untrusted network and trusted network. The firewall is configured with the traffic filtering rules that define the types of network traffic that will be allowed to pass through. 1.5.1.1 Packet Filtering Packet Filtering is check the packet header information for all packets is arrived to the firewall, when the packet filtering check all the header information such as sources address and the destination address. If the packet filtering policy is match with header information it will allow to pass thought the firewall otherwise it will drop the packet or not forwarded thought the firewall. (Forefront Threat Management Gateway: features, 2010) 1.5.1.2 Stateful Filtering Stateful Filtering is to keep track all the network connection such as TCP or UDP. For the firewall is programmed to distinguish the packet isnt legitimate to pass though the firewall, and only the packet is matching the known connection just will allowed by the firewall. (Forefront Threat Management Gateway: features, 2010) 1.5.1.3 Application-Layer Filtering Application-Layer Filtering is to determine whether the packet is allowed or not to pass though the firewall. The application will open the entire packet to examine the data request from the internet web server using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) GET commands, the application filter will check the packet and detect the GET commands. Allowed or not allow is determine by the GET command policy from application filter. (Forefront Threat Management Gateway: features, 2010) 1.5.1.4 Spam Filtering Nows a day dont have a single tool or process can anti all the spam but the Forefront is providing a layered, multipronged and multifaceted to approach to reducing all the spam into the organization. For configure with the setting rules is at the spam filtering tab which is located in Forefront TMG. The Forefront TMG spam filtering includes such as Sender ID, Sender Filtering, Sender Reputation, IP Block, IP Allow, and the Recipient Filtering. For this entire feature in will filter inbound messages in a specific order to approach reducing spam. (Configuring Spam Filtering, 2010) 1.5.1.5 Virus Filtering Forefront TMG is provide the virus filtering to use remove the entire virus before it entry to the organization network to harm the server and computer. Forefront TMGs virus filtering is scanning with multiple engines to detect and remove virus, for the multiple engines can up to five to detect virus. (Chapter2: Selecting and Configuring Antivirus Scan Engines, 2010) 1.6 How Forefront TMG enabled SharePoint Services Web Publishing When using SharePoint Services normally also will using the services to sharing all those file because it will improve all the process efficiency, worker productivity and reducing the cooperate operating costs. So now the SharePoint services is taking to the next level mean SharePoint Services Web Publishing, when publish the SharePoint Services to the internet the Forefront TMG can help the site to the external user without compromising the security of the cooperate. The Forefront TMG got few way to help secure the site to enabled SharePoint Services Web Publishing, all the ways are includes such as Access based on source networks, Access for only encrypted traffic (HTTPS) or for both encrypted and unencrypted traffic, Allowing caching, Access based on time, and the Access based on use groups. (Configuring SharePoint publishing, 2010) 1.7 Microsoft Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint Microsoft Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint is software that integrates with SharePoint and Microsoft Forefront TMG to help organization for protect their document libraries from viruses, worm, spam, inappropriate content. For the Microsoft Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint got 3 ways to protect SharePoint, these 3 ways are include such as Comprehensive Protection, Simplified Management, and the Integrated Protection. (Forefront Security for SharePoint: Overview, 2009) 1.7.1 Comprehensive Protection In Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint, it provides the real-time antivirus and manages multiple scanning engines. Then it also provides the multi-layer protection in SharePoint. Other important features are file filtering and eliminate single points of failure. (Forefront Security for SharePoint: features, 2009) 1.7.2 Integrated Protection In Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint is enabling to give Microsoft SharePoint Services high performance protection without compromising the performance of SharePoint services. It helped the administrator to monitor and manage their SharePoint server easily. (Forefront Security for SharePoint: features, 2009) 1.7.3 Simplified Management The simplifies management is provide the user friendly configuration by Forefront Protection, Forefront Protection is also provided the auto update and monitor collaboration security health so that will easily to know the SharePoint services security situation. (Forefront Security for SharePoint: features, 2009) 1.8 Conclusion In this chapter, the author had learnt about the features in Microsoft SharePoint Services. Microsoft Forefront TMG and Microsoft Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint had given huge benefits for the SharePoint to protect and maintain the document libraries in an organization. To make the secure document libraries, understanding on these few software is very important before deploying in the network. Chapter 2: Review on the network infrastructure 2.1 Introduction On last chapter, the author had conducted studies about Microsoft SharePoint Services, Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint and Forefront Threat Management Gateway, as well as the problems when deploying those servers into a network. In this chapter, the content is about the planning of deploys the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) in Forefront TMG that based on scenarios that commonly used by todays businesses. Planning is one of the most fundamental aspects of deploying a new network application, no matters it is inside a large business organization or small businesses. As a good planning stage is the main point of deploying a network. Besides that, the author would also discuss the network infrastructure that available in the Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS). 2.2 Hardware and Software Requirement 2.2.1 Hardware and Software Requirement for Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) 2.2.1.1 Stand-alone The minimum hardware requirement for setting up a Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) and the deployment of Windows Internal Database will show as below: Component Minimum Recommended Processor 2.5  gigahertz (GHz) Dual processors that are each 3  GHz or faster RAM 1  gigabyte (GB) 2  GB Disk NTFS file system-formatted partition with a minimum of 3  GB of free space NTFS file system-formatted partition with 3  GB of free space plus adequate free space for your Web sites Drive DVD drive DVD drive or the source copied to a local or network-accessible drive Display 1024  ÃƒÆ'-  768 1024  ÃƒÆ'-  768 or higher resolution monitor Network 56  kilobits per second (Kbps) connection between client computers and server 56  Kbps or faster connection between client computers and server (Determine hardware and software requirements, 2010) 2.2.1.1.1 Database For the basic installation, the Windows Internal Database it will automatically installed. If for the advanced installation on the stand-alone computer that already have install the Microsoft SQL Server, and ensure the computer are meets the hardware and software requirements for the database server. 2.2.1.1.2 Operating System For the SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) minimum requirement is Windows Server 2003 with the SP1 and the SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) also can run on other Window Server 2003 edition such as: Windows Server 2003 Standard Edition Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Edition Windows Server 2003 Datacenter Edition Windows Server 2003 Web Edition 2.2.1.1.3 Windows Components For the operating system must applied all the critical updates and must to configure the computer become a Web Server by enabling IIS6.0, common files, WWW, and the SMTP. If at Window Server 2008 must have IIS 7.0 installed to install Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 with SP1. For another windows component also needed to install like Microsoft .Net Framework 3.0 and the ASP.Net before install Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS). 2.2.1.2 Server Farm The different between a stand-alone and server farm topology is that use more than one computer to host, for the following roles is including Front-end Web server and database server. 2.2.1.2.1 Front- end Web Server 2.2.1.2.1.1 Hardware and software requirement The minimum hardware requirement for setting up a Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) and the deployment of Windows Internal Database will show as below: Component Minimum Recommended Processor 2.5  GHz Dual processors that are each 3  GHz or faster RAM 2  GB More than 2  GB Disk NTFS file system-formatted partition with a minimum of 3  GB of free space NTFS file system-formatted partition with 3  GB of free space plus adequate free space for your data storage requirements Drive DVD drive DVD drive or the source copied to a local or network-accessible drive Display 1024  ÃƒÆ'-  768 1024  ÃƒÆ'-  768 or higher resolution monitor Network  · 56  Kbps connection between client computers and server  · For connections between computers in your server farm, 100  Mbps connection  · 56  Kbps or faster connection between client computers and server  · For connections between computers in your server farm, 1  Gbps connection (Determine hardware and software requirements, 2010) 2.2.1.2.2 Operating System For the SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) minimum requirement is Windows Server 2003 with the SP1 and the SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS) also can run on other Window Server 2003 edition such as: Windows Server 2003 Standard Edition Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Edition Windows Server 2003 Datacenter Edition Windows Server 2003 Web Edition 2.2.1.2.3 Windows Components For the operating system must applied all the critical updates and must to configure the computer become a Web Server by enabling IIS6.0, common files, WWW, and the SMTP. If at Window Server 2008 must have IIS 7.0 installed to install Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 with SP1. For another windows component also needed to install like Microsoft .Net Framework 3.0 and the ASP.Net before install Microsoft SharePoint Services 3.0 (WSS). 2.2.1.2.4 Database Server For the hardware and software requirement is same as front-end Web Server but the database server role must at least have SQL Server 2000 latest service pack or Microsoft SQL Server 2005 SP1 or later. 2.2.2 Hardware and Software Requirement for Microsoft Forefront TMG The minimum hardware and software requirement for setting up a Microsoft Forefront TMG show as below: (System requirements for Forefront TMG, 2010) 2.2.3 Hardware and Software Requirement for Microsoft Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint The minimum hardware and software requirement for setting up a Microsoft Forefront Protection 2010 show as below: (Forefront Protection 2010 for SharePoint: System Requirement, 2010) 2.3 Study on the existing network infrastructure for SharePoint Services In this topic, the author will do some research about existing network for Microsoft SharePoint Services on the internet source. Some briefly explanation on the diagram will given that show as below: Figure 2.1 (Forefront Security for SharePoint: Extranet Solution, 2010) The author has found the diagram via internet site which is publishing by microsoft.forefront.com. This diagram is a network diagram for a organization with multiple servers and multiple protection. A computer has been configured as a Forefront Security for SharePoint, Forefront Server Security Management Console, and the firewall is using the Intelligent Application Gateway 2007. In this network infrastructure is using two products to

Evolving of Characters in Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice Essay

Evolving of Characters in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen creates a unique environment which allows her characters to evolve and to transform. One of the characters, Elizabeth Bennet, the second daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet, faces challenges that impact her decisive demeanor. Likewise, Fitzwilliam Darcy, Elizabeth’s love interest, confronts many obstacles which come against his character as well. Through several key experiences, both Elizabeth and Darcy undergo internal transformations – Elizabeth’s quick judgments become humbleness while Darcy’s arrogance is replaced with humility. Early in the novel, Elizabeth is quick to judge and criticize others. Elizabeth rapidly judges Wickham, a military man of Darcy’s acquaintance, as an upstanding gentleman. Mingling falsehoods with truth, Wickham misleads Elizabeth to believe not only lies about Darcy but also disadvantages he himself suffered (76). Perceiving his words as truth by the sole authority of his countenance (178), Elizabeth’s quick judgment allows her to unwisely trust in Wickham’s â€Å"amiable† character (77). Elizabeth also does not hesitate to criticize Darcy for his rude and proud demeanor. After Elizabeth hears Darcy speaking of her â€Å"tolerable† features to Bingley (15), Darcy’s good friend and owner of an estate located in the same shire as that of the Bennets, Elizabeth passes judgment on Darcy by gossiping â€Å"with great spirit among her friends,† recounting the story of his description of her beauty (15-16). Criticizing Darcy furt her, Elizabeth expresses how his arrogant demeanor offends her, proclaiming â€Å"I could easily forgive his pride, if he had not mortified mine.† (24) Elizabeth is also quick to judge Bin... ...rous to please.† (224). Additionally, Darcy’s humility allows him to help Wickham and Lydia, Elizabeth’s youngest sister who elopes with Wickham. Before his transformation, even the pronunciation of the name Wickham and the silliness of Lydia would have kept Darcy as far as possible from either (172, 175). Because of his newfound humility, however, Darcy takes upon himself all the â€Å"trouble and mortification† of locating Wickham and Lydia and bribing the former into marrying the latter (277). Changing from their former selves to embrace new identities, Darcy and Elizabeth learn to look past arrogance and criticalness to gentler ways of approaching both people and circumstances. They transform. And although Elizabeth’s shortcomings reside in her mind and Darcy’s in his money, both lose sight of their prideful and prejudiced natures to embrace humility.

Health Improvement Essay

To address this challenge, the world’s governments committed themselves at the United Nations Millennium Summit to the Millennium Development Goals, including the overarching goal of halving extreme poverty by the year 2015. Yet, our planet’s capacity to sustain us is eroding. The problems are well-known – degrading agricultural lands, shrinking forests, diminishing supplies of clean water, dwindling fisheries, and the threat of growing social and ecological vulnerability from climate change and loss of biological diversity. While these threats are global, their impacts are most severe in the developing world – especially among people living in poverty who have the least means to cope. Is this environmental decline inevitable in order for poverty to be reduced? We argue not. Indeed, quite the opposite is true. If we do not successfully arrest and reverse these problems, the world will not be able to meet the Millennium Development Goals, particularly the goal of halving extreme poverty. As this paper demonstrates, tackling environmental degradation is an integral part of effective and lasting poverty reduction. The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) provides the international community with a pivotal opportunity to redirect the global debate, and to forge a more integrated and effective global response to poverty and environmental decline. To succeed, we need to focus on the most important links between poverty, the environment and sustainable development. For many, ensuring sound environmental management means curtailment of economic opportunities and growth, rather than their expansion †¦ too often; it is viewed as a cost rather than an investment. Prepared as a contribution to the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development focuses on ways to reduce poverty and sustain growth by improving management of the environment, broadly defined. It seeks to draw out the links between poverty and the environment, and to demonstrate that sound and equitable environmental management is integral to achieving the Millennium Development Goals, in particular eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, reducing child mortality, combating major diseases, and ensuring environmental sustainability. Four priority areas for sustained policy and institutional change are highlighted: ?Improving governance for pro-poor and pro-environment policies, institutions and services, with particular attention to the needs of women and children; ?Enhancing the assets of the poor and reducing their vulnerability to environment-related shocks and conflict; ?Improving the quality of growth to protect the asset base of the poor and expand opportunities for sustainable livelihoods; ?Reforming international and industrialized country policies related to trade, foreign direct investment, aid and debt. Policy opportunities exist to reduce poverty and improve the environment The environment matters greatly to people living in poverty. The poor often depend directly on natural resources and ecological services for their livelihoods; they are often the most affected by unclean water, indoor air pollution and exposure to toxic chemicals; and they are particularly vulnerable to environmental hazards such as floods and prolonged drought, and to environment-related conflict. Addressing these poverty-environment linkages must be at the core of national efforts to eradicate poverty. Many policy opportunities exist to reduce poverty by improving the environment – but there are significant and often deeply entrenched policy and institutional barriers to their widespread adoption. The past decade of experience since the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio reveals some important lessons that help point the way forward. Three broad lessons are highlighted here: ?First and foremost, poor people must be seen as part of the solution – rather than part of the problem. Efforts to improve environmental management in ways that contribute to sustainable growth and poverty reduction must begin with the poor themselves. Given the right incentives and support – including access to information and participation in decision-making – the poor will invest in environmental improvements to enhance their livelihoods and well-being. At the same time, however, it is essential to address the activities of the non-poor since they are the source of most environmental damage. The environmental quality of growth matters to the poor. Environmental improvement is not a luxury preoccupation that can wait until growth has alleviated income poverty, nor can it be assumed that growth itself will take care of environmental problems over the longer-term as a natural by-product of increasing affluence. First, this ignores the fundamental importance of environmental goods and services to the livelihoods and well-being of the rural and urban poor. Second, there are many examples of how bad environmental management is bad for growth, and of how the poor bear a disproportionate share of the costs of environmental degradation. Ignoring the environmental soundness of growth – even if this leads to short-run economic gains – can undermine long-run growth and its effectiveness in reducing poverty. ?Environmental management cannot be treated separately from other development concerns, but requires integration into poverty reduction and sustainable development efforts in order to achieve significant and lasting results. Improving environmental management in ways that benefit the poor requires policy and institutional changes that cut across sectors and lie mostly outside the control of environmental institutions – changes in governance, domestic economic policy, and in international policies. Improving governance ?Integrate poverty-environment issues into nationally-owned poverty reduction strategies, including macroeconomic and sect oral policy reforms and action programmes, so that they can become national sustainable development strategies. Engage poor and marginalized groups in policy and planning processes to ensure that the key environmental issues that affect them are adequately addressed, to build ownership, and to enhance the prospects for achieving lasting results. Address the poverty-environment concerns of poor women and children and ensure that they are given higher priority and fully integrated into poverty reduction strategies and policy reforms – for example, the growing burden of collecting scarce water and fuelwood supplies, and the effects of long-term exposure to polluted indoor air. Implement anti-corruption measures to counter the role of corruption in the misuse of natural resources and weak enforcement of environmental regulations – for example, the destructive impacts of illegal logging and unregulated mining, or the preference for construction of new power and water investments over increasing the efficiency of existing investments. ?Improve poverty-environment indicators to document environmental change and how it affects poor people, and integrate into national poverty monitoring systems. This should be complemented by measures to improve citizens’ access to environmental information. Enhancing the assets of the poor ?Strengthen resource rights of the poor by reforming the wider range of policies and institutions that influence resource access, control and benefit-sharing, with particular attention to resource rights for women. This includes central and sub-national government, traditional authorities, the legal system, and local land boards, commissions and tribunals. Support decentralization and local environmental management – land, water and forest resource management, and provision of water supply and sanitation services – by strengthening local management capacity and supporting women’s key roles in managing natural resources. ?Expand access to environmentally-sound and pro-poor technology, such as crop production technologies that conserve soil and water and minimize the use of pesticides, or appropriate renewable energy and energy e fficient technologies that also minimize air pollution. This includes support for indigenous technologies, and the need to address the social, cultural, financial and marketing aspects of technical change. ?Promote measures that reduce the environmental vulnerability of the poor by strengthening participatory disaster preparedness and prevention capacity, supporting the formal and informal coping strategies of vulnerable groups, and expanding access to insurance and other risk management mechanisms. Reduce the vulnerability of the poor to environment-related conflict by improving conflict resolution mechanisms in the management of natural resources and addressing the underlying political issues that affect resource access. Improving the quality of growth ?Integrate poverty-environment issues in economic policy and decision-making by strengthening the use of environmental assessment and poverty social impact analysis. Improve environmental valuation at both the macro and micro level, in order to highlight the full cost of environmental deg radation for the poor in particular and the economy in general, and to improve economic decision-making. ?Expand private sector involvement in pro-poor environmental management to maximize the efficiency gains from private sector participation, while safeguarding the interests of the poor. This requires capacity within government to negotiate with the private sector – for example, to ensure that utility privatization benefits the poor – and to forge effective public-private partnerships that enhance the poor’s access to environmental services. ?Implement pro-poor environmental fiscal reform including reform of environmentally-damaging subsidies, improved use of rent taxes to better capture and more effectively allocate resource revenues, and improved use of pollution charges to better reflect environmental costs in market prices. Reforming international and industrialized country policies ?Reform trade and industrialized country subsidy policies to open up markets to developing country imports while avoiding environmental protectionism, and to reduce subsidies that lead to unsustainable exploitation – such as subsidies for large-scale commercial fishing fleets that encourage over-harvesting in developing country fisheries. . Make foreign direct investment more pro-poor and pro-environment by encouraging multinational corporations to comply with the revised OECD Code of Conduct for Multinational Enterprises, and to report on the environmental impact of their activities in line with the UN Environment Programme’s Global Reporting Initiative. ?Increase funding for the Global Environment Facility as the major source of funding for global public goods in the environment, such as a stable climate, maintenance of biodiversity, clean international waters and the protective ozone layer. These benefit the whole world as well as the poor themselves – so the rich world must pay a fair share for their maintenance. ?Enhance the contribution of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) to national development objectives by strengthening developing country capacity to participate in the negotiation and implementation of MEAs (for example, to ensure that the Clean Development Mechanism promotes investments that benefit the poor). Also, improved coordination is needed between MEAs so that scarce developing country capacity is used most effectively. ?Encourage sustainable consumption and production – industrialized country consumers and producers through their trade, investment, pollution emissions and other activities affect the environmental conditions of developing countries. Making rich country consumption and production more sustainable will require a complex mix of institutional changes – addressing market and government failures as well as broad public attitudes. Enhance the effectiveness of development cooperation and debt relief with more priority for poverty-environment issues, particularly for the poorest countries where aid and debt relief continue to have a valuable role to play in helping governments to make many of the changes recommended above. Mainstream environment in donor agency operations through staff training, development and application of new skills, tools and approaches, and revisions to the way resources and budgets are allocated. Transparent monitoring of progress against stated objectives and targets is needed in order to hold development agencies accountable and to ensure that a commitment by senior management to addressing poverty-environment issues is put into practice throughout the organization. Conclusion This paper looks ahead with some degree of hope and optimism for the future – there are sometimes win-win opportunities, and there are rational ways of dealing with trade-offs. Environmental degradation is not inevitable, nor the unavoidable result of economic growth. On the contrary, sound and equitable environmental management is key to sustained poverty reduction and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. There are significant policy opportunities to reduce poverty and improve the environment, but more integrated and pro-poor approaches are needed. The World Summit on Sustainable Development is an opportunity to focus on what is most important and to forge a coherent framework for action, with clear goals and achievable targets backed-up by adequate resources and effective and transparent monitoring mechanisms. There can be no more important goal than to reduce and ultimately eradicate poverty on our planet. PART 1 Why the Environment Matters to People Living in Poverty â€Å"Water is life and because we have no water, life is miserable† (Kenya) â€Å"We think the earth is generous; but what is the incentive to produce more than the family needs if there are no access roads to get produce to a market? † (Guatemala) â€Å"In the monsoons there is no difference between the land in front of our house and the public drain. You can see for yourself† (India) In their own words, the environment matters greatly to people living in poverty. Indeed, poor people’s perceptions of well-being are strongly related to the environment in terms of their livelihoods, health, vulnerability, and sense of empowerment and ability to control their lives. Figure 1 provides a simplified framework for understanding how environmental management relates to poverty reduction, and why these poverty-environment linkages must be at the core of action to achieve the Millennium Development Goals and related national poverty eradication and sustainable development objectives. Environmental management for poverty reductionDimensions of povertyDevelopment goals Part 1 of the paper focuses on the poverty-environment relationship by examining how environmental conditions in both rural and urban settings relate to three key dimensions of human poverty and well-being: ?Livelihoods – poor people tend to be most dependent upon the environment and the direct use of natural resources, and therefore are the most severely affected when the environment is degraded or their access to natural resources is limited or denied; Health – poor people suffer most when water, land and the air are polluted; ?Vulnerability – the poor are most often exposed to environmental hazards and environment-related conflict, and are least capable of coping when they occur. We also are concerned with the relationship between growth and the environment and how it affects the poor and efforts to reduce poverty. The environmental soundness of growth matters considerably to the poor, and countries with similar levels of income and growth can have quite different levels of environmental performance. While Figure 1 illustrates the main pathways between environmental conditions and dimensions of poverty, in reality these linkages are multi-dimensional, dynamic and often inter-connected: ?Poverty is now widely viewed as encompassing both income and non-income dimensions of deprivation – including lack of income and other material means; lack of access to basic social services such as education, health and safe water; lack of personal security; and lack of empowerment to participate in the political process and in decisions that influence one’s life. The dynamics of poverty also are better understood, and extreme vulnerability to external shocks is now seen as one of its major features. Environment refers to the biotic and abiotic components of the natural world that together support life on earth – as a provider of goods (natural resources) and ecosystem services utilized for food production, energy and as raw material; a recipient and partial recycler of waste products from the economy; and an important source of recreation, beauty, spiritual values and other amenities. The nature and dynamics of poverty-environment linkages are context-specific – reflecting both geographic location and economic, social and cultural characteristics of individuals, households and social groups. Different social groups can prioritize different environmental issues (Brocklesby and Hinshelwood, 2001). In rural areas, poor people are particularly concerned with their access to and the quality of natural resources, especially water, cro p and grazing land, forest products and biomass for fuel. For the urban poor, water, energy, sanitation and waste removal are key concerns. Poor women regard safe and physically close access to potable water, sanitation facilities and abundant energy supplies as crucial aspects of well-being, reflecting their primary role in managing the household. ?Environmental management, as used in this paper, extends well beyond the activities of public environmental institutions. In relation to poverty, environmental management is concerned fundamentally with sustaining the long-term capacity of the environment to provide the goods and services upon which people and economies depend. This means improving environmental conditions and ensuring equitable access to environmental assets – in particular land and biological resources, and safe and affordable water supply and sanitation – in order to expand poor people’s livelihood opportunities, protect their health and capacity to work, and reduce their vulnerability to environment-related risks. This broader conception of poverty and environment, and of environmental management, is essential to understanding the linkages between them and to identifying appropriate policy and institutional options for improving these linkages. There have been some impressive gains since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment – the first global conference devoted to environment and development issues. There has been a proliferation of environmental policies and institutions at national and sub-national levels, and environmental issues are firmly placed on the agendas of governments, civil society and the private sector. Major global environmental agreements have been forged and global environmental organizations established. Environmental sustainability has become a core concern of bilateral and multilateral development cooperation, and billions of dollars have been spent on environment-related programmes and projects. Tangible progress also has been achieved ‘on the ground’, although the picture is usually mixed. For example, in the 1990s some 900 million people gained access to improved water sources. However, this was merely enough to keep pace with population growth, and about 1. 2 billion people are still without access to improved water sources, with rural populations particularly under-served (Devarajan et al, 2002). Another example is the productivity of soil used for cereal production, which increased on average in developing countries from 1979-81 to 1998-2000. However, it fell in some 25 countries, most of them in Africa, with land degradation being one factor behind the decline (World Bank, 2002c). Despite these gains, pressure on the environment continues to mount worldwide, posing major challenges to the prospects for poverty reduction and human development in developing countries, in particular the least developed countries.

Domestic violence and ethnic minority Women living in the UK with “no recourse to public funds” The WritePass Journal

Domestic violence and ethnic minority Women living in the UK with â€Å"no recourse to public funds† CHAPTER 1 Domestic violence and ethnic minority Women living in the UK with â€Å"no recourse to public funds† CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH THE STUDYAIMOBJECTIVESCHAPTER 2METHODOLOGY AND THEORATICAL APPROACHSOURCES OF INFORMATION KEY WORDSCHAPTER 3LITERATURE REVIEWLITERATURE ON ISSUES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCECHAPTER 4HEALTH AND WELL- BEINGMENTAL HEALTHCHAPTER 5CULTURAL INFLUENCESCHAPTER 6REFUGES, CARE AND SUPPORTSUPPORTING WOMEN WITH ‘NO RECOURSE’ TO PUBLIC FUNDSBLACK ETHNIC MINORITY WOMEN AND LAWCHAPTER 7CONLUSION/CRITIQUECHAPTER 8IMPLICATIONS TO SOCIAL WELFARE PRACTICERECOMMENDATIONSRelated CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH THE STUDY The focus of this study is to discuss the impact of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women living in the UK. To discuss intervention support services available and limitations faced in accessing statutory and voluntary organisations services. The topic has been chosen following a successful volunteering placement within an area of domestic violence. Volunteering at Coventry Haven as a domestic violence advocate/support worker meant being confronted daily by black ethnic minority Women living in the UK with â€Å"no recourse to public funds† needing support.   The â€Å"no recourse to public funds† rule means that women with unsettled status cannot access public provision including refuges, and social welfare (Sen. 2007:13) The organisation delivers services from a feminist perspective, taking a critical position of women in question and argues that issues of masculinity power are the ultimate root of intimate violence (Dobash and Dobash 1979). This feminist theoretical framework also argues that violence must be located within gendered perspective of men’s and women’s lives (Letherby 2003:42). The literature based study will adopt a feminist perspective and framework which understands domestic violence as a gendered occurrence to provide an analysis of current and relevant literature on the issues of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women in the UK. This study will also discuss effects of domestic violence on health and well-being of the black ethnic minority women in UK.   Moreover, it will explore the support services available to victims and discuss the limitations faced in accessing state services. Research will discuss the implication of findings for practice and will suggest a number of various recommendations towards current support services. From my own personal perceptions as a woman brought up in Africa, now living in the UK.   Many women continue to occupy a less important position in family organisations with many African men still possibly viewing domestic violence as the only way to solve family disputes.  Ã‚   Women’s Aid (2007) argue that although there is no legal definition of domestic violence, recommendation from the Home Office states that: â€Å"Domestic violence includes any incident of threatening behaviour, violence or abuse (physically, psychological, sexual, financial or emotional between adults who are or have been intimate partners or family members in spite of of gender or sexuality† (Women’s Aid, 2007). Until most recently, the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim was defined as that of partners, ex-partners or intimate family members, but following critiques by black ethnic minority women organisation like the Women’s Aid, Southhall Black Sisters, the definition now includes all forms of abuse including cultural specific forms of violence like forced marriage, honour killing and dowry attacks (Women’s Aid, 2007). AIM To discuss the impact of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women in UK and explore the intervention support services existing, the limitations these women face in accessing state services. OBJECTIVES To provide an analysis of current/ relevant literature on issues of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women in UK. To discuss the effects of domestic violence on the health and well-being of black ethnic minority women in UK. To explore the impact of cultural influences when accessing domestic violence support services. To explore the domestic violence support services available from statutory, voluntary organisations and their limitation in accessing these services. To discuss the implication of the findings for practice and suggest some various recommendations towards current support services. CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY AND THEORATICAL APPROACH This chapter will discuss the methodology and theoretical framework which the researcher has adopted for the rationale of the study and will provide the aims and objectives for the research.   The feminist theory of domestic violence will be briefly discussed within the research to gain an idea as to why men (perpetrators) abuse their female partners. The research is a literature based project adopting the feminist perspective methodology which argues that issues of gender and power are the ultimate root of intimate violence (Dobash and Dobash 1979).   The feminist theoretical framework argues that violence must be situated within the gendered context of men’s and women’s lives (Letherby   2003). Understanding domestic violence as a gendered occurrence leads to a focus on the problems of violent behaviour.   As (Cheyne; O’Brian; and Belgrave, 2000) argue, â€Å"The main purpose of feminist theory in every discipline has been to introduce the issues of gender†.   With regards to domestic violence Kersti Yllo (1993) comments that, the most primary feminists insight, is that, domestic violence cannot be sufficiently understood unless gender and power are taken into account. A critical theory of the feminist hypothesis will be adopted because of its distinctive features that focus on oppression and commitment in order to use the research procedures and outcomes for   empowering   the oppressed;   in this case the black ethnic minority women living in UK either on spousal visa, students or unknown status.   However, the black ethnic minority women would appear to be marginalised under this classification. From my own personal perspective as a black woman living in the UK, many black women continue to occupy a subordinate position, with many black men possibly viewing violence as the only way to solve family problems.  Ã‚   Through-out the process of the study, the researcher will remain in a distance objective stand to remain free from biases that could hinder obtaining knowledge.   Objectivity in social research is, the principle drawn from positivism that strives to ensure that the researcher remains objective and distanced from the study. In this way, findings depend on the nature of what was studied somewhat than the personal beliefs and values or the researcher (Rubin and Babbie 2001). The study will draw together and re-analyse qualitative literature to discuss the impact of domestic violence on black ethnic minority women living in the UK on, either, spousal visas, student visas or under an unknown status. Research will explore the impact of cultural influences on manly and woman relationships within the black ethnic minority families, impact of domestic violence on the women’s health and well-being. Furthermore the study will look at limitations black ethnic minority women come across when assessing statutory and voluntary organisations services for domestic violence support/services. A literature search is defined as methodical and thorough search of all types of published literature in order to identify as many items as possible that are related to a particular topic (Gash 2000:1)  Ã‚   As Creswell (2003) points out, the literature review shares with the readers the results of previous studies and also benchmarks results of a study with other results.   Primarily literature reviews are based on a synthesis of primary findings done by other researchers.   It also helps in generating a picture of what is known or not known about a particular happening (Creswell, 2003; Groove, 1993). Another reason for doing a literature based study is the time factor considering the process needed to undertake primary data collection.   The use of literature review can be viewed as less expensive compared to primary data collection in financial terms. The researcher also agrees with Stewart (1993) who argues that in case of tough budget and time constraints the use of secondary data is also good enough and can make available quality data. Like any other method of secondary research, literature review has its strengths and weakness.   The strengths for literature based study is that the researcher rarely affects the subject being studied because books have already been written, case records already recorded therefore, analysing the literature can have no effect on them.   Literature based research also permits the researcher to study processes that occur over long periods of time.   Literature based studies also have some limitations depending on the data that already exists. Each time the researcher bases a research on an analysis of data that already exist, is clearly limited to what exists. Due to sensitivity of issues of domestic violence primary research methods of collecting data might not have been the most appropriate for this research.   It is very difficult to gain access to women in refuge in practical terms because refuge locations are kept secret for the safety of the victims.   Victims may not wish to discuss their past experiences fearing to trigger some emotions.   Some women in refuge have been hostile in the past towards academic researchers using residents (Hoff: 1999.) The literature search focuses on sources that would meet the identified aims and objectives.   Exploration terms were predefined to retain focus on domestic violence and abuse on black ethnic minority women. Intended for the purpose of this research the term â€Å"Black† is used exclusively for women born in Africa, living in UK on either, a spousal visa, student visa or unknown status. One of the limitations will be in recognising unrecorded cases of domestic violence.   Fearing stigmatisation and shame by many black women, many incidents of domestic violence go unreported within the black communities therefore; literature review may not be a true account of all the black women surviving domestic violence and abuse. SOURCES OF INFORMATION French et al (2001) suggest that literature review goes through three fundamental steps.   This includes the search for relevant literature, analysis and critical evaluation of individual sources of literature and finally synthesis which involves comparing, contrasting, organising and finally presenting the written review. (French et al 2001) For the purpose of this study, literature information will be sourced from either, books or journals, grey (unpublished) literature, official publications including charitable organisations. Most sources will be obtained from the library catalogue systems and electronic database using some key words. KEY WORDS Domestic violence, black ethnic minority women, abuse, perpetrators, spouse and battered women Since initial literature search does always yield many articles, practical screening criteria will be used to screen literature in order to get articles that are relevant to the subject only.   The practical screening criteria will include factors such as the language in which the articles are printed. To arrive at relevant literature, database for Coventry University, Social Welfare and Community Studies was used. To search for literature the Coventry university catalogue searches of electronic database using tools like, Cinahl, Assia. Medical Science Academic Search, Ebsco, Science direct and the internet has been used. The literature search used a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria, ensuring that time was not consumed on literature that was immaterial to the study. INCLUSION EXCLUSION Black ethnic minority women in heterosexual relationships only. Black ethnic minority women who were born in UK and anyone holding a UK citizenship. Black ethnic minority women living in UK only. The reason is mainly to focus and target this group of women living in UK on spousal visa, student visa and unknown status only. Any articles in foreign languages will be excluded. The rationale for the exclusion of  Ã‚   articles in foreign language is that, it would be costly in terms of finance having to pay translators. Literature review that is more than fifteen years will be included in the research for historical background purposes. CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW LITERATURE ON ISSUES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE This chapter will discuss the literature review on issues of domestic violence, focusing primarily on black ethnic minority women living in the UK.   To be able to understand the issues of domestic violence, it is vital to recognise that violence against women is an international reality which has been acknowledged as a major public health issue (Shipway 2004).   The acknowledgement of domestic violence internationally as a major public health has seen an improvement in numbers of localities dealing with domestic violence, but there remain some areas where little if anything is done to support women abused by intimate partners (Shipway 2004). Problems have risen where women from the ethnic minority have been lumped into one category and not considering their different cultural and religious differences. With no intensions of making excuses, it has been noted that obtaining data on black ethnic minority women (BEM) housing needs is difficult.   (Netto et al., 2001) report that there was national evidence that people from the black ethnic minority with including refugees find it very difficult to access services. Whilst domestic violence affects women from all ethnic groups, women from black ethnic minority communities may face isolation more that women from the majority. There are claims that women from the black ethnic minority communities may have to overcome religious and cultural pressure resulting in them being afraid of bringing shame onto their family respect or in some cases normalising and accepting domestic violence (Women’s Aid 2010). According to (Binney et al, and Women’s Aid Federation, 1988), the average length of time a woman endures violence before leaving an abusive relationship is seven years.   Also research has shown that a woman is beaten and average of 35 times before she seeks helps. Amina Mama (1989) highlighted that the additional implications of race, ethnicity in conditioning the experience of domestic violence. In addition Amina Mama (1989) argues that fear of racism responses could act as barriers preventing black ethnic minority women from accessing services or speak out about the domestic violence they experience. (Chantler et al (2006) mentioned that stereotyping and stigmatisation as barriers that prevent women from the black ethnic minority communities from seeking help.   The position of black ethnic minority women escaping domestic violence is exacerbated by barriers to reporting abuse which also include protecting family honour and normalising and accepting violence. Netto et al (2001) indicated the lack of specialist refuge spaces and immigration legislation as a barrier that denies black ethnic minority women with insecure status to access domestic violence services. Immigration issues posed a significant barrier for eight of twenty three survivors (Home Office 2008).   As indicated by the Home Office, a woman who has entered Britain as a spouse of a British citizen does not have recourse to any public funds should the marriage breaks up within one year. Exclusion in this way will stem, in part, from the fact that these women are categorises due to their unsettled immigration status which as a result becomes a barrier to accessing statutory services. Whilst women from the black ethnic communities are faced with the same obstacles in leaving violent relationships as white majority (Burman and Chantler   2009), confirms that; money, childcare, housing, transport may carry cultural specific inflections, exacerbated by racism and class position. According to (Burman and Chantler, 2009), such representations, in most cases have material consequences in terms of policy and development (Burman and Chantler, 2009). (Gilroy and Woods, 1994:101) states that black ethnic minority women face structured and subjective racism and sexism which determine their access to, as well as their choices in the basic right of adequate roof over their heads. Roehampton University (2008) revealed   that   the housing needs of the black ethnic minority were overwhelming and a   number of respondents admitted to   the need for improved consultation with black ethnic minority’s sector (Banga and Gill, 2008:2).   One woman stated that black women lack a voice, their needs are not accounted for and that it has not been about services to suit women and children’s needs but about women and children having to fit into services (Banga and Gill, 2008: 2). The NSPCC domestic violence campaign briefing (2008) indicates, two thirds of local authorities in England, Scotland and Wales offers a specialised service to women who are victims of domestic violence; one in ten (46 out of 434 has a specialised black ethnic minority services for abused women.   These are mainly in England (95 per cent) and almost half are in London.   Such statistics indicate a gap in knowledge about the extent and geographical coverage for black ethnic minority and how domestic violence affects such communities. On the other hand the success and accomplishment by the Southall black sisters (2008) confirms how the system can be achieved to challenge insufficiencies in local government response after winning a court case against Ealing Council (Southall Black Sisters, 2008). The council was found guilty of failing to pay proper regard to equalities legislation, in particular the Race Relations Act when making its decisions to cut the entire funding of Southhall Black Sisters (SBS) who provided services for black women (Southall Black Sisters, 2008). Rai and Thiara (1997) identified several obstacles to accessing the emotional, informational and instrumental support for women from specialist services.   According to critics of â€Å"on-size-fits-all† approach, women have negative views of current policies of domestic violence especially those of local authority (Southhall Black Sisters, 2008).   This â€Å"one-size-fits-all† highlights an institutional culture that fails to recognise the need for domestic violence action and policy. The end the violence against woman campaign (2007) reports   that the   government   departments failed to put in place a framework that ensures that domestic violence was addressed effectively.   In addition Mason (1992) estimated that between 25 percent and 50 percent of homeless families headed by a woman had become homeless as a result of fleeing domestic violence. Vincent and Jouriles (1988).   Bearing in mind such a high estimation by Mason (1992), it is important to note that in some cases battered women are confronted with homelessness and harsh economic hardships when they separate from violent partners. (Williams and Becker 1994), concluded that, of the one hundred and forty two programs surveyed, less than have made special effort to accommodate the needs of black ethnic minority populations, for example providing outreach services, adding or tailoring intervention to encourage involvement by women from the ethnic marginal groups (Williams and Becker 1994). In addition, statistics issued by Women’s Aid Federation of England made known that one in four women do experience violence in the home at least once during their life time (Women’s Aid Federation of England, 2002).   Also according to the Home office, â€Å"two women weekly are killed by intimate partners† (Home Office 2002). Numerous researchers and practitioners in the past studies on domestic violence within black ethnic minority communities have preferred to lump all women from the black ethnic minority in one group. (Fonte, 1988) points out that in much of previous researches; little attention has been paid to similarities and differences among different groups within the broad race/ethnic category (Fonte, 1998).   For purposes of racial/ethnic comparisons, diverse ethnic groups have often been shrunken into heterogeneous categories for example â€Å"black† though ignoring the diversity within that larger group. The process whereby individuals with diverse cultural backgrounds are sorted into broad race/ethnic categories by researchers is â€Å"ethnic lumping† (Fonte, 1993).   In most cases when research is circumscribed ethnic group the findings are sometimes over generalised to all members of the larger group.  Ã‚   Issues of within-group diversity have been rarely been addressed. Moreover, experiences and values within these groups have been influenced not just by immigration histories, cultural heritages but also by historical facts.   Researchers need to be aware and knowledgeable of how ethnicity, national origin, religion, disability, language and socioeconomic status are crucial when collecting domestic violence data from women within diverse groups if their diverse needs are to be met effectively. A more careful assessment of the potential role of race/ethnicity in domestic violence, rather than ethnic lumping and overgeneralization is essential if adequate interventions are to be developed and utilised at the same time removing the barriers faced by women from the black ethnic communities in accessing statutory and voluntary organisations.  Ã‚      CHAPTER 4 HEALTH AND WELL- BEING This chapter will focus on the impact of domestic violence on the health and well- being on the lives of black ethnic minority women living in the UK as they face the barriers to accessing some statutory services.   In seeking to understand the ways in which domestic violence and abuse undermines any woman’s life, health and well-being and the determination to survive it can be helpful for researchers to consider â€Å"Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (1987). Figure 1.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (1987). In 1987 Maslow argued that the social and economic disadvantage people face, hold them back from meeting their needs.   Memories of past events damage or block people’s capacity to act. (Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (1987). Abrahams (2010), affirms   that abused women agree with Maslow by claiming,   domestic violence/abuse demolishes the structure of their hierarchy needs with the loss of their personal identify, destruction of confidence and self -esteem, isolation from potential systems and fear of uncertainty (Abrahams, 2010). Apart from women’s Maslow’s hierarchy of needs not being met and the physical aftermath of domestic violence, there are some serious consequences on the victim.   The World Health Organisations (2001) lists depression, anxiety, psychosomatic symptom, eating disorders, sexual-dysfunction as being a direct result of the endurance of domestic violence and abuse. (World Health Organisations, 2001) Below are pictures showing the aftermath of physical domestic violence on women. Fig: 1:2 Women’s Aid, 2007. MENTAL HEALTH The impact of domestic violence on mental health has been well documented and includes low self-esteem, anxiety and depression (Kirkwood, 1993, Mooney 1994 and Thiara 2003a).  Ã‚   Research suggests that 50 percent of women users of mental health services have experienced domestic violence (Department of Health, 2003), compared to one-third of women in general population in the UK (Mooney, 1994). Women from the black ethnic minority accessing mental health services remain over-represented within such researches.   Given that the General Practitioner is the first port of call for women who face domestic violence (Dobash et al., 1985: 148), is considerable that seven women who were not in social housing were not registered with a General Practitioner (GP) in part because they were not able to afford paying for the medication that may be prescribed for them. Campel (2000) confirms depression and post traumatic stress disorder as the most prevalent mental-health problems of intimate partner violence. A study by (Mclnnes, 2003) reveals that it is not only while enduring domestic violence that women feel the impact of negative stereotyping associated with domestic violence. (Mclnnes, 2003) also describes the stereotypes as a form of social violence inflicted upon women. Women continue to live with the feeling of rejection and stigma from the general public even after leaving the perpetrator. A research by Mitchel and Hodson (1983) found out that sheltered women had a mean depression score two standard deviation above the norm.   In addition to a number of studies focusing on battered women who sought medical service and presenting with high rate of psychological difficulties. (Browne 1993; Holtsworth-Munroe et al. 2000) have also provided general discussions of the mental health correlates and consequences of husband violence.   Other researchers have also documented depression in large percentages of battered women in shelters or those receiving non-residential services for battered women (Cascardi and O’leary 1992). Results of studies on battered women showed that depressed mood, sleep problems, loss of energy, inappropriate guilt, problems with concentration and feelings of worthlessness were associated symptoms of depression (Andrews and Brown 1988).   (American Psychiatric Association 1994) also reported that low self-esteem which is closely related and often occurs with depression is generally referred to as an overall negative evaluation of self within battered women. In additions, Brown (1993) also observed that posttraumatic stress disorder may be the most appropriate diagnosis for many battered women with several researchers finding higher levels of posttraumatic stress symptoms in women receiving services from domestic violence shelters compared to other groups of women.   Kemp et al. (1995) found out that 81 percent of battered women and 63 percent of women who were verbally abused met criteria for a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. Although it is unclear as to whether problems with substance mis-use arise before or after domestic violence, (Jaffe et al. 1986; Dawns and Gondoli 1989) argued that this issue warrants attention for the benefit of abused women.   (Bergman and Brismar 1991) confirms that 23 percent of battered women who received emergency medical attention services had a history of alcoholism whereas no women in a non-abused comparisons group did (Bergman and Brismar 1991). CHAPTER 5 CULTURAL INFLUENCES This chapter will discuss the cultural barriers within the black ethnic minority families to seeking statutory and voluntary organisations domestic violence support services. One of the most vital needs of women leaving home due to domestic violence is access to safe, secure stable housing. Although the refuge movement provides a network of refuges to women of all backgrounds, accommodation is available on an emergency and temporary basis only (Hague and Malos 1998:101). (Lee et al., 2002) suggest that the most influential factor on how a woman responds to domestic violence is social and cultural context of her life.   Even with the provision of refuges, a research by the (Southall Black Sisters, 2008) found out that black ethnic minority women and children endure violence for between three and forty years before seeing help. United Nations (UNCRC Article 6 [1], reports women from the black ethnic minority communities take an average of ten years before leaving a violent relationship.   As a result children grow up in unsafe and unhealthy home environment (United Nations 2008). (Adams 1999) points out â€Å"In considering domestic violence within black ethnic minority families, there has been reluctance to acknowledge its existence†. In addition Mama (1989) remarks that violence against women is historical bound up in patriarchal practices which are based on gender relationships more so in the black ethnic minority households.   (Women’s National Commission, 2003; Gill 2004) states that women are taught that the public image of family is more important than the safety of the individual. Honour and respectability are dependent on a successful marriage.   Also women fear dishonour and rejection from their communities if their marriage should fail.   Just like the Asian women, black ethnic minority women consider seeking help from the outsiders as the last resort (Yoshioka et al. 2003).   Black ethnic minority women are advised to stay in their marriage rather than leave abusive relationships (Gill 2004). (Adams 1999) argues that there are greater obstacles for women coming to the UK on spousal visas, women complaining of domestic violence risk deportation should they leave the martial home before the first year of arrival or marriage. (Adams 1999). (Abraham, 2000) indicates that isolation is an important factor in domestic violence particularly among immigrant families (Abraham 2000).   For women with no-recourse to public funding (NRPF), this isolation continued after they left abusive relationships.   Thirteen out of twenty women had no contact with family or friends in the two weeks prior to the interview due to a range of reasons including; lack of informal sources of support in the UK.   Fear of being disowned by family for leaving the marriage and fear of being traced, including lack of sufficient funds to visit friends or speak to families in the subcontinent. A research by the NHS (2003) suggests that sense of shame and fear of stigma within black ethnic minority communities might prevent women with complex social problems accessing services, the sense of shame in accessing drug services remain a concern.  Ã‚   In addition problems of confidentiality within the community also lead to lack of confidence in services (Fawcett 2004). (Women’s Aid 1997), commissioned a study exploring the needs of black ethnic minority women. The study illustrates that large numbers of from these communities are not aware of specialist support services.   Lack of such information by the black ethnic minority women leads them to endure violence for longer periods. (Women’s Aid 1997) also reveals, negative perception about refuges and inadequate help from agencies further heighten anxieties about refuges within such communities. Black ethnic minority communities, encompasses a multitude of ethnicities, nationalities, cultures and religions.   As a result of this black ethnic women consist of various diverse needs, concerns and life-styles.  Ã‚   (Dhillo-Kashyan and Woods 1994) highlights the difficulties for such women to retain their cultural and religious customs during their stay in refuges.   He adds that it is apparent that there were difficulties in supporting women with specific needs with shared accommodation provided by refuges as communal living. (Mama 1989; Adams 1988) noted that, there are greater difficulties for black ethnic minority women in accessing refuge support than white women.   Furthermore, whilst other groups stated in the research that they would accommodate this group of women, there seemed little understanding of their cultural and specific needs. Adams (1998) noted that black ethnic minority women feel far less secure in their own ability to leave home, particularly as they are considered subordinate within their own culture.   In addition many women from the black ethnic minority communities stay with their abuser for economic reasons. A Study by Humphrey and Thiara (2003), notes that women from the black ethnic minority community were significantly more likely to continue to suffer substantial problems both emotional and materially more than six months after separation from the abuser. (Humphrey and Thiara, 2003). (Thiara, 2005) states that not being fluent in English acts as a barrier preventing black ethnic minority women from seeking help and accessing services.   Such women are unable to access written information on domestic violence (Thiara, 2005). CHAPTER 6 REFUGES, CARE AND SUPPORT Despite the Feminist organisations campaign and attainment in 1977, of acceptance of domestic violence as a basis for homelessness in housing legislation (Morley et al, 2002), women’s â€Å"general† refuges which opened in the 1970’s to aid women and children fleeing domestic violence, enabling women to re-build their live and move on to stable, suitable accommodation confirmed that not all women’s care support needs were being met and not all women had equal access to the â€Å"generic† provision (Banga, B., Gill, A. 2008). Regardless of all campaigning, researches and large number of studies in domestic violence field, (Hague and Malos 1998; Dobash and Dobash 1992), changes in British social policy and housing policy in particular have in some respects, further secluded women and children experiencing domestic violence. Research documents that in the face of state policy and local authority practice women’s refuges which maintain themselves on the rentals paid through benefit system for residence can seldom afford to accommodate women with no-recourse to public funding (NRPF).   As a consequence, women with no recourse to public funds who repeatedly attempt to leave on many occasions only to return to their violent relationships (Dobash and Dobash, 1992; Mullender, 1996). (Crisis, 2006) confirms, women’s homelessness continued to be ignored by strategic thinking and policy making even though many women are still staying in hidden, informal and marginalised homeless accommodation. In a mapping exercise that included 551 woman’ organisations in London found that 73% of black ethnic minority organisation faced a funding crisis between year 2000 and 62% of black ethnic minority organisation had closed or moved locations (Soteri, 2002). Such data showed that by year 2000 black ethnic minority organisations were under threat and had less secure continuation (Soteri, 2002). A study on women in refuge accommodation in 2007 found that on average black ethnic minority women who happen to be accommodated in refuge stayed forty-four days in specialist refuges than women who accessed the main stream (Gill, A.; Banga, B. 2008). Furthermore twenty one refuges turned away 2,300 women who attempted to access specialist refuges because they were full.   As a result this rejection figure was mush higher for black ethnic minority women.  Ã‚   A research by (Women’s Resource Centre, 2007) showed that only 25% (percent) of women who stayed in refugees went to council housing upon leaving the refuge. A study conducted by Women Resource Centre (2008), on the state of London-based black ethnic minority women’s organisations, including the findings from the thirty-second report of the working group with the voluntary sector (2000) found that London-based black ethnic minority organisation had experienced long term volatility and 36 per cent have no paid staff at all. Even if the demand for services had increased and workloads have tripled, evidence showed that there was little support in terms of secure and core funding (Women Resource Centre, 2007). Women’s Resource Centre (2007) research on the state of funding for women found that the lack of suitable housing to move on to meant that, women stayed in refuges for longer periods of time.  Ã‚   This resulted in women being isolated for longer periods.   Also this lack of housing also influenced whether or not women return to their abusers. In is research for Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Chahal (2000) suggests that black ethnic minority groups who are social housing tenants have a tendency to live in the most deprived areas and are over-represented in disadvantaged inner city areas.   According to (Chahal, 2000) roughly 60 per cent of tenants within the housing association accommodation come from the black ethnic minority communities.   (Coy et al. 2007) states that a third of local authorities in the UK have no specialised support services and fewer than one in ten have specialist services for black ethnic minority women. While the UK government acknowledges that there are many commonalities in the experience of women escaping domestic violence, there appear to be little policy development that relates to specific concerns and needs of black ethnic minority women.   Presents of racism in the mainstream refuges has been the subject of a number of researches over the past few years.   This was highlighted in the recent research study (Chantler, 2006) which found, racism to be operating at three levels starting with the service users, workers and at state level through immigration policies that stop women from accessing services. SUPPORTING WOMEN WITH ‘NO RECOURSE’ TO PUBLIC FUNDS The provision of accommodation and support is vital for women who experience domestic violence, a fact recognised by the government in 2003 (Rights for women, 2003).   Women from the black ethnic minority communities with a â€Å"no recourse† visa who experience domestic violence find themselves in a complex situation because they cannot access public funds. Neither to leave their partner and are fundamentally trapped in the violent relationship. The ‘no recourse’ to public funds rule as defined by the Home Office   (2009) prevents women, especially from the black ethnic minority community on spousal visa or subject to immigration control from accessing certain public funds including welfare benefits such as, income support, child benefit as well as housing and homelessness assistance (Women’s Aid 2007). A survey of 11 London refuges found that in the period 2006/07, 223 women with â€Å"no recourse† to public funds requested refuge space.   However, only 19 (8.5%) women were accepted for support.   This meant that just 3% of the total of 585 women who were provided with refuge space providers in 2006/07, of the 19 women accommodated 16 had children (Islington, 2008), no re-course to public funds. The Immigration law (underpinned by various immigrations Acts) is set out in the Immigration Rules, Part 8 of the Immigration Rules state that a woman who joins a partner who has a settled immigration status can be given a 2 years â€Å"spousal† visa on the condition that the partner agrees to provide for their financial and material needs (Home Office 2010). When relationship breaks down, victims are often deterred from looking for help, or leaving violent relationships because they have nowhere to go, do not feel safe in their own homes and also do not have legal rights to remain (Rights of women 2003). Research by the (Southall Black Sisters, 2007) found out that it takes up to 24 months for a woman’s application for indefinite leave to remain (ILR) to be determined when she leaves an abusive partner. (Brittain et al, 2005) states that for many women from black ethnic minority, the nonexistence of interpreters makes accessing services very complex.   Bearing in mind the existing political climate of hostility towards immigrants, the cutback to interpretation as well as English language classes makes it likely that these barriers become entrenched, unless there is a change in policy and practice regarding interpretation and English classes.   When experiencing domestic violence women who have ‘no recourse’ to public funds need be given the ability to access the services as they need to escape domestic violence and protect themselves and their children. BLACK ETHNIC MINORITY WOMEN AND LAW A research entitled until women and children are safe, (Women’s Aid, 2007) argue that women from the black ethnic communities face a number of problems within the legal process.  Ã‚   In most instances gaining access to legal representatives is often stressful and confusing. Lack of specialist services or interpreters mean that such women are deprived of effective access to law and those women whose immigration status made them not entitled for help with legal aid experience particular difficulties (Women’s Aid, 2007). During the same time Women’s Aid research highlighted the process of going to court as itself traumatic and terrifying for women due to lack of separate waiting areas, so that applicants and their abusers often had to share the same small space (Barron, 1990). (Women’s Aid, 2007) states that, courts like many other agencies have often failed to understand the whole range of emotional, psychological and practical reasons why many women stay with or return to a violent partner.   As a result this does often have effect on women for not being taken seriously hence making them unwilling to come to courts. (Bryan, Dardzie and Scafe, 1985) argue that the issue of law enforcement within black communities is extremely controversial.   Negative stereotyping of black people individually and within family groups is pervasive.   Ã‚   CHAPTER 7 CONLUSION/CRITIQUE In conclusion, the examination of literature revealed rather little published material on the issue of black women generally and even less on the subject of violence within the home.   This contrasted with the wide body of work on white women suffering abuse from partners (Hammer and Maynard, 1987; Dobash and Dobash 1980). The stereo-type that surrounds domestic violence often denies the legitimisation of black ethnic minority women as victims (Bograd, 1999).   Often domestic violence against black ethnic minority women is not considered as serious as the violence committed against white victims (Harrison and Esquada, 2000).   This often creates a barrier in black women’s willingness and ability to disclose issues of domestic violence to any professional or care providers.   Any discriminatory practices limit such women’s comfort level in disclosing domestic violence and seeking out services to address it. As mentioned earlier in the study, many researchers and practitioners in past studies on domestic violence within black ethnic minority communities have chosen to lump all women from this community in one category. (Fonte, 1988) argued that in much previous researches, little attention has been paid to similarities and differences among various groups within the broad race, ethnic category. â€Å"Ethnic lumping† as argued by (Fonte, 1993), ignores the diversity within the larger group of black ethnic minority women.   Black ethnic minority women umbrella encompasses a multitude of ethnicities, nationalities, cultures and religions.   As a result the black ethnic minority consists of various diverse communities, each with their own needs, concerns and life styles and cultures that have to be taken into consideration offering support. Although it is clear that statutory and voluntary agencies have a moral and legal duty to respond effectively to the needs of women surviving domestic violence, practitioners need to become aware of limitations of a race-blind service delivery.   (Dominelli, 1988; Mama 1989a) also argue that attention needs to be paid more generally on the effects of policing practice and immigration legislation on lives of black women. Voluntary organisations such as Coventry Haven and many others play a key role in providing advocacy and other support services to domestic violence survivors yet these services appear to have been historically underfunded and struggle to meet the need of women who attempt to access them.  Ã‚   In the face of state policy and local authority practice study revealed that women’s refuges like Coventry Haven which maintain themselves on the rentals paid through benefit system for women residence can rarely afford to accommodate women with ‘no recourse’ to public funding (NRPF). Women’s Aid, (2009) research on domestic violence and housing policy found out that there is a reduction in resources available to organisations working with black ethnic minority women and such organisations have experienced long term stability with 36 per cent having no paid staff at all. As a result funding remains one of the barriers for women accessing services.   This study also found out that a lack of speciality shelters/refuge spaces and an absence of clear guidelines for involving specialist agencies in policy services development and evaluation meant that there is often low recognition of domestic violence with housing policy (Women’s Aid, 2009). Finally, it is essential for   all statutory and voluntary organisations recognise the need   to evaluate their methods of delivering services and ensure that gaps are identified and filled as appropriate if the needs of black women surviving domestic violence are to be met from a different cultural perspective.   Outreach services are very crucial for raising awareness about services and providing information to women from the black ethnic minority communities about the services.   However the few services that are available have no regular source of funding as mentioned earlier in the study.   As a result, many voluntary organisations working with survivors of domestic violence from the black ethnic minority communities will have no alternative but to shut down, leaving such women exposed to further violence from intimate partners.    CHAPTER 8 IMPLICATIONS TO SOCIAL WELFARE PRACTICE Responses to domestic violence should be culturally sensitive and suitable therefore more training for front line staff/practitioners should be vital to make them aware of the cultural differences when responding to domestic violence.   Too often â€Å"black† is lumped with white women and as a result, black women are invisible whose existence and needs are ignored (Dominelli, 2002:30).  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a result of such practices of lumping black women with white women, black feminists have criticised the white radical feminists for not considering the experiences and perspectives of black women when dealing with domestic violence. The complexities of race and gender can aggravate problems for practitioners and serve to cover the realities of women’s experience in the family (Lupton; Gallespie, 1994:106).   In offering assistance to people of different race and social class, it is essential for practitioners to understand their viewpoints especially their culture and values about family life (Lupton; Gallespie, 1994:106). During my practice as a domestic violence advocate/support worker for Coventry Haven, I noted that the organisation experienced some difficulties in supporting women from the black ethnic minority communities. The reason being that, this group encompasses a multitude of ethnicities, nationalities, cultures and religions.   As a result of such multitudes and lack of awareness and knowledge of different cultures by the front line practitioners meant that not all women’s needs were being met. In every effort to meet black ethnic minority women’s needs, the services available fail to meet the complex needs of this population (Martinson 2001; Bograd 1999).   In order to achieve this, (Borgrad, 1999) suggests that developing theories that move beyond simple description of domestic violence, but take into account intersections of race and class will be necessary in order to provide access to appropriate services for black ethnic minority women. All practitioners within the statutory and voluntary sector need to recognise the practice dilemmas. Insufficient cultural knowledge may result in inabilities to distinguish between understandings, and respecting other cultures and holding stereotypical notions about other cultures which I found problematic for many volunteers during my practice as a domestic violence advocate/support worker. RECOMMENDATIONS Researches on domestic violence within ethnic groups need to pay attention on the differences among various groups as â€Å"ethnic lumping† ignores the diversity within the larger group of black ethnic minority women.   Theories need to move beyond simple description of domestic violence and take into account intersection of race and class in order to provide access to appropriate services for black women. The Government needs to extend the domestic violence rule to include all abused women including women with ‘no recourse’ or insecure immigration status and introduce protection for this group of women whose marital relationships would have broken down. Responses to domestic violence should be culturally sensitive and appropriate therefore, providing culturally appropriate information and support may assist all women regardless of their race/ethnicity to disclose domestic violence. Mainstream services to augment their identification of domestic violence and signposting to specialist agencies for specialist services.   There is need for improved awareness and training for practitioners on culturally sensitive responses to black women’s domestic violence.   There is need to review some of the diversity policies and procedures in generic refuges.   More funding for more specialist domestic violence services working with women and children from the black ethnic minority communities.   More volunteers and interpreters from different cultural and language backgrounds are needed to ensure the language barrier is overcome. The development of interpreting and translation services should be a prioritised, not only can they make life easier for people whose first language is not English, but they would also offer agencies same as Coventry Haven a more effective way of working through some complicated cases of violence.Practitioners from both statutory and voluntary organisations   need to ensure that the needs of women from the black ethnic minority communities are addressed within the context of their being seen as whole human beings in which each area of their life interacts with others, looking at collective solutions to individual problems.